FOUNDATION OF WESTERN HEGEMONY
The building of empires throughout history has seen nations impose their way of life on the peoples they conquer. Powerful empires emerged around the world with relatively limited contact with one another until European nations heavily invested in overseas exploration during a period commonly referred to as the Age of Discovery (1400s–1600s). As a historical term, the “Age of Discovery” embodies an attitude of Eurocentrism, or the belief that the experiences of Europeans are central to world history. Such attitudes ignored the fact that the places Europeans “discovered” were already inhabited and had their own cultures, traditions, and histories.
European explorers were emboldened by the teachings of their churches, which suggested they had a responsibility to convert people to Christianity. As a result, Christian missions were established shortly after arrival. As European countries expanded their global presence in the Americas, Asia, and Africa, European traders and settlers used their Christian faith to declare themselves superior to local populations and as a means of control.
Their mastery of seafaring vessels allowed European powers to expand their international trade. To achieve further economic advantage, Europeans engaged in the transatlantic trade in enslaved persons, in which 12.5 million Africans were forcibly taken to work in the Americas. Widespread belief in white supremacy enabled the system of slavery, and its legacy continues to inform the politics of all countries involved in the slave trade, especially the United States.
By the 1700s European countries had established themselves throughout the Americas. White settlers saw themselves as the rightful inheritors of the American frontier, and this attitude informed their contact with the Indigenous peoples. Colonial rule in the Americas ended in the late 1700s and early 1800s as the colonial populations gained independence from European states. Founded on European governing principles and within the context of white supremacy, these newly established countries codified structural racial hierarchies that assumed authority belonged to white men. With this development, European powers, and later the United States, turned their attention to Asia and Africa where they sought to expand their empires and global influence. The foreign powers set up schools, colonial governments, and other institutions that promoted white culture and values as superior to local ones.
Throughout the 1800s, in efforts to expand trade, European countries and the United States adopted foreign policies that forced nonwhite populations to accept unfair terms. For example, the British Empire intentionally flooded Chinese markets with opium after becoming frustrated with its terms of trade with the Qing dynasty in China, leading to the Opium Wars (1839–1860). In 1854 the United States threatened Japan to open trading relations under the threat of military action, a policy commonly referred to as gunboat diplomacy.
The major European powers of the late nineteenth century competed to gain control over as much of the African continent as possible. This period, commonly referred to as the Scramble for Africa, was characterized by an appetite for the continent’s natural resources and a belief that white people should “civilize” local populations. In 1884 representatives from twelve European powers, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire met in Berlin, Germany, to discuss how to divide the land up among themselves; no Africans attended.
Though many former colonies have achieved independence and the international community officially supports self-determination, Europe and the United States continue to exert a disproportionate influence on global politics, economics, and culture. This dominance over world affairs can be described as hegemony, an idea popularized by Italian philosopher Antonio Gramsci. Western hegemony reinforced white supremacy as white people in predominantly white countries accumulated more wealth, power, and influence. Within this context, white becomes increasingly associated with value. The insidiousness of how cultural value is perceived allows white supremacy not only to affect government and economic policy but to be deeply ingrained in social customs, beauty standards, and other more nuanced areas of life.