“Medical Apartheid” - Harriet A. Washington
“They Were Her Property” 2019 non-fiction book by Stephanie Jones-Rogers.
"The Long Arm of Slavery in the Development of American Gynecology" - Dr. Deirdre Cooper Owens.
"How Modern Medicine Was Born of Slavery" - Dr. Deirdre Cooper Owens.
"In 1850 and 1860 the median age for male slaves in the U.S. was 17 years; for female slaves the median age dropped from 17.4 to 17.2 years (Jackson, 1980). The median ages for these populations indicate that the average slave was young."
[...]
"The effect of the slave system on demography can be revealed by examining the age–sex structure of slave populations. The age–sex structure of slaves in Harris County, Texas is investigated using the 1850 and 1860 slave schedules. Median ages for black and mulatto slaves suggest that the population was young. Population pyramids exhibit a narrow base and top with a broad middle. The high proportion of slaves between 10 and 30 years of age and the increase in population size between 1850 and 1860 were mainly related to the importation of slaves and only partly due to natural increase. The data also show that black slaves were older on small plantations while mulattoes were older on larger farms. It is suggested that differential treatment in terms of purchase practices, assignment of tasks, food allocation, and/ or differential susceptibility to infectious diseases may account for this pattern."
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
Slave shackles dated from the period of slavery are displayed as part of the collection at the Museum of Civilizations of Ivory Coast in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. The shackles were used to restrain the feet of the slaves to keep them immobile during their transport in boats or when held in cells. REUTERS/Luc Gnago
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
A tool dated from the 18th century that, according to the museum, was used to suspend a slave who was considered stubborn from a tree, part of the original collection at the Mobee Royal Family Slave Relics Museum in Badagry, Nigeria. The ring at the end of the tool was forced over the already broken wrist of a punished slave. The tool was then attached to a tree branch holding the entire body weight of the slave off the ground. REUTERS/Afolabi Sotunde
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
Illustrations from a document published in 1794 titled 'Remarks on the Methods of Procuring slaves with a short account of their Treatment in the West-Indies' that is held as part of the collection in the Wilberforce House Museum in Hull. REUTERS/Russell Boyce
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
A pointed branding tool on the end of a chain that dates from the 18th century and was captured from a slave ship by slave merchant Sumbu Mobee, part of the original collection at the Mobee Royal Family Slave Relics Museum in Badagry, Nigeria. According to the museum this tool was heated in fire and then used to write the names of the slave merchant on the skin of the slaves. It was also used to pierce the lips of slaves, to prevent slaves who were working in the fields from eating. REUTERS/Afolabi Sotunde
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
A print of a notice saying "Negroes for sale" and informing of eight slaves belonging to Jacob August to be sold by public autions in Warrenton, North Carolina, on October 28, 1859 by Autioneer PJ Turnbull. The print is displayed at Nigeria's Badagry Heritage Museum. REUTERS/Afolabi Sotunde
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
A whip thought to be made of hippopotamus hide and allegedly used on a plantation in the British Caribbean in the nineteenth century, part of the collection in the Wilberforce House Museum in Hull. Slaves were reported to often get whipped on plantations with a variety of whips. REUTERS/Russell Boyce
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
A punishment record for the Friendship Plantation, dated 1st July to 31st December 1827, part of the collection in the Wilberforce House Museum in Hull. The punishment of slaves was meticulously recorded with separate columns listed with details of date, name of slave, nature of offence (such a refusing to work and running away), time and place of punishment, by whose authority, by whom inflicted, witnesses, nature and extent of punishment if female and extent of punishment if male. REUTERS/Russell Boyce
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
A double leg shackle, dated from the 18th century, is displayed as part of the collection at the Mobee Royal Family Slave Relics Museum, in Badagry, Nigeria. This shackle was used to bind together the legs of two slaves when they were being moved from one location to another or when two slaves were made to work together in the field, the goal being to slow their movement. August 2019 marks 400 years since the slave trade to North America began. REUTERS/Afolabi Sotunde
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
An 1895 replica of a silver branding iron, similar to those used to brand enslaved people with the mark of a trading company or plantation, at the Wilberforce House Museum in Hull. When enslaved people were purchased, they would be branded with a red hot iron on their chest or shoulder. REUTERS/Russell Boyce
Reuters / Thursday, July 25, 2019
A replica made as a copy of a slave's neck brace or collar that is held as part of the collection in the Wilberforce House Museum in Hull. A collar was put on an enslaved person's neck as a punishment, and was designed to prevent them resting as well as making escape difficult. August 2019 marks 400 years since the slave trade to North America began. REUTERS/Russell Boyce
A replica made as a copy of a slave's neck brace or collar that is held as part of the collection in the Wilberforce House Museum in Hull. A collar was put on an enslaved person's neck as a punishment
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